Black Teachers Matter: Examining the Depths of Seven HBCU Teacher Preparation Programs

Shanique J. Lee

The University of North Carolina at Charlotte

There is an immediate need for Black teachers who have been properly trained to meet the diverse needs of students in urban schools. However, the lack of appropriate representation of Black teachers has caused issues among Black students that include lowered academic performance and missing cultural experiences (Egalite, Kisida, & Winters, 2015; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Madkins, 2011). Thus, this study examines the teacher preparation programs of seven historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) using Ladson-Billings’ (2000) conceptual framework for effective programs. The results reveal that, though each of the programs vary in their program components, the majority of the HBCUs intentionally incorporated situated pedagogy, academic achievement, and cultural competence within their teacher preparation programs. The components that were not underscored in most of the HBCUs were autobiography and sociopolitical critiques. Therefore, since the HBCUs studied in this paper contribute significantly to the number of Black teachers in America, it is recommended that they and other schools preparing Black teachers consider incorporating these components into their programs, while also intentionality ensuring the cultural competence of future Black educators being prepared to serve in diverse urban schools.

Keywords: Black teacher preparation, HBCU, pre-service teachers

According to the most recent data released by the National Center for Education Statistics, the percentage of Black students enrolled in public schools in the United States is 15.7 percent while the percentage of Black teachers is only 6.8 percent (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2013, 2016). This disproportionality contributes to several disadvantages for Black students, including: (a) a lack of representation in field of education, which deters them from pursuing a career in education and continues the trend of Black teacher underrepresentation; (b) lowered academic performance, which is influenced by negative teacher perceptions and interactions; and (c) culture demonization, making their experience with school one that does not feel safe or like a place where they may authentically engage in their education (Egalite, Kisida, & Winters, 2015; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Madkins, 2011; Stewart, Meier, & England, 1989). Though the mere presence of Black educators is not the answer to closing the opportunity gap, as there is no universal Black experience, there is an increased likelihood that Black educators are more familiar and can therefore respond more appropriately to the cultural norms of the Black community (Farinde, LeBlanc, & Otten, 2015; Villegas, Strom, & Lucas, 2012). Therefore, the cultural connection between racially matched teachers and students has the potential to improve the academic performance of Black students, provide them with a culturally-affirming academic experience, and increase the likelihood that Black students strive to become Black teachers (Egalite et al., 2015; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Madkins, 2011; Stewart et al., 1989).

Thus, the aim of this paper is to critically examine Black teacher preparation by analyzing the teacher preparation programs offered at seven historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) in the United States. The seven HBCUs that will be examined are Tennessee State University, Jackson State University, Virginia State University, Mississippi Valley State University, Fayetteville State University, Elizabeth City State University, and North Carolina A&T State University. These schools were selected because, after analyzing NCES data, Walker (2015) identified them to be within the top ten HBCUs that produce teachers. Additionally, the schools selected provided enough information on their websites to allow a general understanding of their teacher preparation programs. By analyzing the components of these programs, modifications are then suggested for other HBCUs to make in order to potentially increase the number of effective Black teachers serving in diverse urban schools.

This paper begins with a review of the literature regarding the shortage of Black teachers, and suggestions on ways to recruit and properly train them to work in diverse schools. Next, this study analyzes the education programs of seven HBCUs that have been identified as most effective in producing teachers. Though there is ample literature regarding the recruitment, preparation, and retention of Black educators, few studies have critically analyzed the education programs that produce Black teachers who have been most effectively prepared to serve in urban schools. Accordingly, this paper then concludes with recommendations for other HBCUs to improve their teacher preparation programs, with the ultimate goal to increase the presence of effective, culturally competent and culturally affirming Black teachers in diverse urban schools.

Literature Review

Typically, teacher preparation programs develop their students by (a) aiding them in the mastery of their content matter, (b) guiding them in their adoption of a pedagogical approach, (c) providing them with a student teaching experience, and (d) preparing them to teach diverse students (Allen, Hancock, Starker-Glass, & Lewis, 2017; Boyd, Grossman, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2009; Hayes & Juárez, 2012; Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 2002). However, it has been found that the last component is not always heavily emphasized, and the reason for this may be due several realities, such as the fact that governing bodies such as the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation do not explicitly require student understanding of diverse learning needs (Allen et al., 2017; Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation, 2016). So, while realizing the critical necessity of these four teacher education components, it is also necessary to acknowledge that they do not include the thorough and authentic understanding of “the daily lives of the children in context” (Ladson-Billings, 2000, p. 209). This is an integral missing link because, according to Darling-Hammond (2006), “teaching is in the service of students, which creates the expectation that teachers will be able to come to understand how students learn and what various students need if they are to learn more effectively—and that they will incorporate this into their teaching and curriculum construction” (p. 303). If future educators were given this understanding, along with authentic exposure to the populations they aim to serve, they would have the necessary tools to appropriately shape the development and delivery of their instruction, which would in turn foster higher academic achievement among their students who have been marginalized and disenfranchised.

Teacher Preparation

Teachers are not all being efficiently prepared to serve in schools with high needs and diverse students (Boyd et al., 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Eckert, Grossman, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2009). In an effort to address the need for more appropriately prepared teachers, Darling-Hammond (2012) created a model for teacher preparation programs that includes the common features of various programs proven to produce effective teachers. These common features are: (a) a vision for effective teaching that is understood by all students and underscored in all of the their coursework and field experiences; (b) professional standards created out of the program’s vision, which guide and evaluate the students’ coursework and field experiences; (c) a curriculum that authentically parallels the students’ field experiences and considers in context the various developmental stages of children; (d) extended, authentic clinical experiences that span for at least 30 weeks; (e) consistent utilization of learning methods that urge students to apply the curriculum to their practice and evaluate their practice using the curriculum; (f) the implementation of intentional strategies that assist teachers in confronting and challenging their biases; and (g) genuine relationships fostered between the university and its partner schools, in which they work collaboratively toward a common vision (Darling-Hammond, 2006, 2012). These seven features necessarily address the critical need for the curricula and field experiences being offered in teacher preparation programs to accurately prepare their students to serve in schools of varying contexts.

Taking her revolutionary work a step further, Darling-Hammond (2014) later expanded on her model adding that, in order for teacher preparation programs to become even more impactful, they should include (a) explicit coherence and integration between students’ coursework and their field experiences; (b) partnerships between preparation programs and schools, which work collaboratively on improving the preparation of teachers; and (c) an intentional application of the theories the students are learning into their field experiences. By insisting that these features be incorporated into teacher preparation programs, Darling-Hammond highlighted the importance of bridging the existing gap between compelling theories and effective practices. Simultaneously, Darling-Hammond’s framework advocates for preparation programs that better equip diverse teachers to educate diverse students within diverse educational settings.

The conceptual framework proposed by Darling-Hammond (2006, 2012, 2014) is one of many that has been established to increase the effectiveness of teacher preparation programs tasked to prepare teachers who are ready to meet the increasingly diverse needs of K-12 students. For example, Allen et al. (2017) created a framework that systematically integrates culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) into teacher preparation programs. The authors argued that a foundation in CRP is necessary because it not only fosters the academic achievement of students, but also establishes their cultural competence and critical consciousness, both of which are crucial when working with diverse learners. According to Allen et al.’s (2017) framework, the integration of CRP occurs by mapping the following into teacher preparation programs: (a) cultural competence via the critical reflection of teacher educators and candidates; (b) critical consciousness through social justice action in policies and programs; and (c) academic achievement by posing critical questions within the program’s curriculum and instruction. This framework argues that integrating CRP into teacher preparation programs has the potential to equip educators with the tools necessary to be successful educators to diverse learners.

Taking a broader approach, the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) developed research-driven teaching standards, or progressions, to assess and support teachers’ instruction to diverse learners. These progressions were created to be used by a range of stakeholders with the intention of supporting the ongoing development of teachers as they work to lead their students to high academic achievement. For example, teacher preparation programs may use the progressions as a guide to sequence their coursework and scaffold their field experiences. Additionally, school leaders can evaluate their teachers and teachers can assess themselves using the progressions (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2013). Even further and in congruence with all of the models discussed, most district-mandated teacher evaluation forms have also been updated to reflect diversity in teaching (Norman, 2010). Thus, the importance of cultural competence has become a shared belief among stakeholders in education. However, the means by which cultural competence among educators should be achieved has undoubtedly varied. In addition to the range of efforts described in this section, another way that scholars have attempted to intentionally incorporate cultural responsiveness into schools is by recruiting more Black educators.

Addressing the Black Teacher Shortage

Since desegregation, there has been a continual decline in the percentage of Black educators in the United States (Madkins, 2011). Before desegregation there was a dire need for Black teachers to ensure the continued education of the Black population. However, after the passing of Brown v. Topeka Board of Education, busing sent many Black children to White schools, thus drastically decreasing the availability of jobs for Black educators (Ethridge, 1979). As previously mentioned, the percentage of Black students enrolled in public schools in the United States is 15.7 percent, while the percentage of Black teachers in public schools is only 6.8 percent (NCES, 2013, 2016). Exploring this long-standing phenomenon, Gordon (1994) conducted a study in which she interviewed 140 teachers of color to understand their beliefs on why students of color do not strive to become teachers. The responses to this interview produced 17 themes that fell into three main categories: educational experience, cultural and community concerns, and social and economic obstacles. The themes that emerged regarding educational experience included the teachers’ beliefs that students of color do not strive to become teachers because they have low graduation rates, encounter negative experiences in school, and are taught by teachers who were not prepared to accommodate diversity. The cultural and community concerns in this study included the teachers’ beliefs that students of color have a lack of academic encouragement and are turned off by the low status of teachers. Lastly, the themes that emerged regarding social and economic obstacles included the teachers’ beliefs that students are deterred from pursuing a teaching career because of teachers’ low pay, poor school conditions, and the availability of opportunities elsewhere (Gordon, 1994). The findings from this study are supported by more recent studies seeking to understand the Black teacher shortage.

For example, Madkins (2011) conducted a thorough literature review of the historical and contemporary trends of the Black teacher shortage, in which she found that some of the reasons for the current lack of Black teachers includes inadequate educational opportunities, careers in other fields, and standardized testing practices. Madkins then offered suggestions to various stakeholders to increase the number of Black teachers, highlighting America’s immediate and critical need for effective Black educators. One of these suggestions was for policies to be created on the state and federal level that promote the recruitment and retention of minority teachers. In addition to this suggestion, another promising way to increase the presence of Black teachers in U.S. schools is for HBCUs to increase their recruitment of students into their teacher preparation programs (Irvine & Fenwick, 2009; Mawhinney, Mulero, & Pérez, 2012). Many other scholars have also continued to argue the pressing need to diversify the teaching force. Farinde et al. (2015) stated that this diversification is necessary in order to “secure the recognition and inclusion of diverse cultures and learning styles within the classroom” (p. 34).

Therefore, one route that educational organizations have explored to address the issue of underrepresentation has been through the creation of alternative routes to teaching. The disparities that continue to exist due to the lack of teacher representation have charged a number of organizations to recruit more teachers of color into America’s urban schools via these alternative routes (Chin & Young, 2007). This has shown varied success in adequately preparing teachers, but has succeeded in dramatically increasing the presence of Black and other teachers of color into America’s classrooms (Feistritzer & Haar, 2008; Humphrey & Wechsler, 2007). According to Mitchell & Romero (2010), alternative certification programs allow a range of talented professionals who typically did not earn education degrees to enter classrooms. The authors continue that this often fills a critical void since teachers entering through alternative certification programs typically accept positions in understaffed urban schools. However, though the training for teachers who are receiving alternative certification typically includes coursework, mentoring and supervision (Humphrey, Wechsler, & Hough, 2008), these programs are typically designed with relatively short periods of pre-service preparation, which may result in inadequate cultural competency and/or content knowledge among the teachers being certified (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Lasko-Kerr & Berliner, 2003).

Moving Toward Better Teacher Preparation

In addition to recruiting more Black teachers, it is also crucial to ensure that these teachers are effectively trained and prepared to teach in diverse urban schools. Boyd et al. (2009) conducted a study in order to explore how different features of teacher preparation influenced teachers’ effectiveness as measured by their students’ test scores. The authors analyzed documents as well as interviewed and surveyed administrative staff, instructors, program participants, and graduates of 31 teacher preparation programs in New York City. The results revealed variation in the effectiveness of teachers coming from the same programs, but one consistent, important, and defining characteristic of effective teacher preparation programs was their ability to recruit promising teacher candidates. Therefore, it is first crucial that teacher preparation programs recruit the proper candidates in order to properly prepare them to teach in diverse urban schools.

Further, Ladson-Billings (2000), a pioneer in the area of cultural competency in education, argued that “a more systemic, comprehensive approach is needed” (p. 209) to more appropriately prepare teachers to serve diverse classrooms. She then named the following as essential components of effective teacher preparation programs: personal/cultural autobiographies, restructured field experiences, situated pedagogies, and returning to the classrooms of experts. Regarding personal/cultural autobiographies, Ladson-Billings (2000) synthesized literature that discussed the effectiveness of teachers who reflect on their life experiences, citing a prior article she co-authored that suggested teachers “consciously re-experience their own subjectivity when they recognize similar or different outlooks and experiences” (King & Ladson-Billings, 1990, p. 26). Therefore, by infusing the component of autobiographies into teacher education programs, educators will be better prepared to empathize with and authentically teach to the diverse experiences of their students. This critical reflection is particularly necessary while teaching in urban schools because of the cultural, economic, and linguistic diversity of the students being educated in those spaces. Additionally, encouraging the use of autobiographies also highlights the importance of each student being provided the space to represent their own experience, perspective, and voice.

Further, Ladson-Billings (2000) suggested that the field experiences of pre-service teachers need to more accurately parallel the realities of teaching in urban schools. Schools should prepare their teachers by providing authentic field experiences in actual urban schools and/or by providing them with immersion opportunities in diverse communities to promote a genuine awareness of the communities raising their students. This should replace the practice of many programs to misleadingly brand their field experiences as “diverse”. Next, Ladson-Billings outlines that pre-service teachers should receive training that includes culturally specific pedagogies. This way, argued Ladson-Billings, teacher educators are asked “to think more carefully about the relationship of teacher preparation to the communities in which they are located and the school populations that their graduates are likely to serve” (p. 210).

The last strategy that Ladson-Billings (2000) offered as a suggestion to improve the education of teachers is to return to the classroom of experts. This component encompasses the three propositions of CRP, a now fundamental concept conceptualized by Ladson-Billings. The three components of CRP, and the way that Ladson-Billings suggests teachers return to the classrooms of experts, are academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical critique (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Academic achievement is fostered when a diverse body of students is both engaged in and challenged by the content being delivered. Cultural competence is achieved when teachers acknowledge, celebrate, and legitimize students’ culture. Lastly, sociopolitical critique is promoted when students are consistently challenged to examine inequities and how they are perpetuated by social structures (Ladson-Billings, 2000). Therefore, (a) Ladson-Billings’ suggested components of effective teacher preparation programs in conjunction with (b) research conducted by other scholars regarding teacher preparation, and (c) research highlighting the need for more Black teachers in urban schools, all underscore the necessity of stronger teacher preparation programs at schools that produce Black teachers, or HBCUs.

Methodology

Given the range of conceptual frameworks for effective teacher preparation programs, the one developed by Ladson-Billings (2000) provided specific changes that teacher preparation programs could make in order to best prepare their graduates to teach diverse learners with cultural competence. Therefore, using Ladson-Billings’ (2000) suggestions, seven HBCU education programs were analyzed in this study. The HBCUs examined in this study were chosen because, using data from the National Center for Education Statistics, Walker (2015) found them to be among the top ten HBCUs that produce teachers. They are Tennessee State University, Jackson State University, Virginia State University, Mississippi Valley State University, Fayetteville State University, Elizabeth City State University, and North Carolina A&T State University. The reason that HBCUs are the focus of this study without the inclusion of predominately-White institutions is because of HBCUs’ high concentration of Black students and the documented need for more Black teachers to work in urban schools. Therefore, examining HBCUS is necessary in order to study the preparation of Black teachers. Thus, the websites and supporting documentation for the teacher preparation program of each institution were analyzed to determine whether their programs included a noted emphasis on Ladson-Billings’ conceptualizations of autobiography, restructured field experiences, situated pedagogies, and/or returning to the classrooms of experts (including academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical critique).

Findings

The seven schools analyzed in this study are all located in America’s southeast region, with three of them being in North Carolina. After analyzing each of their teacher preparation websites, it was found that (a) all of the schools emphasized fostering the academic achievement component of CRP among their teacher candidates; (b) five of the schools emphasized fostering situated pedagogies among their teacher candidates; (c) four of the schools emphasized fostering the cultural competence component of CRP among their teacher candidates; (d) two of the schools stated their intentionality with providing their teacher candidates field experiences at urban schools; (e) two of the schools emphasized fostering the sociopolitical critique component of CRP among their teacher candidates; and (f) none of the schools emphasized an autobiography component in their teacher preparation programs; Table 1 provides a visual overview of these data, and the remaining sections provide details on each schools’ teacher preparation program.

Table 1

HBCU Teacher Preparation Program Components

	HBCU
	TSU	JSU	VSU	MVSU	FSU	ECSU	NCAT
Autobiography
Field experiences in urban schools
Situated pedagogies
Academic achievement
Cultural competence
Sociopolitical critique

Tennessee State University

Tennessee State University (TSU) is a 4-year public HBCU located in Nashville, Tennessee. During 2016-2017 school year, TSU conferred 1,063 Bachelor’s degrees, 78 of which were in education (NCES, 2017f). The College of Education at TSU houses their Teacher Education Program (TEP) within the Teaching and Learning Department. After navigating TSU’s TEP website, it was determined that there was no mentioned emphasis on autobiography being incorporated into the program, or whether the students’ field experiences are completed at diverse urban schools. Additionally, there is no mentioned emphasis on students learning about or following situated pedagogies. Regarding pre-service teachers returning to the classroom of experts, the TEP at TSU emphasizes academic achievement and cultural competence, but not sociopolitical critique (Tennessee State University, 2018).

Jackson State University

Jackson State University (JSU) is a 4-year public HBCU located in Jackson, Mississippi. During the 2016-2017 school year, JSU conferred 942 Bachelor’s degrees, 119 of which were in Education (some of the Education degrees were earned online) (NCES, 2017c). The College of Education and Human Development at JSU houses the TEP within their Center for Teacher Quality. After navigating the Center for Teacher Quality website and JSU’s Human Development Responsive Educator Framework, it was determined that there is no mentioned emphasis on autobiography, but there is a mentioned emphasis on field experiences being completed at diverse urban schools and on students learning about and following situated pedagogies. Regarding pre-service teachers returning to the classroom of experts, the TEP at JSU emphasizes academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical critique (Jackson State University, 2018).

Virginia State University

Virginia State University (VSU) is a 4-year public HBCU located in Petersburg, Virginia. During the 2016-2017 school year, VSU conferred 828 Bachelor’s degrees, 79 of which were in Education (NCES, 2017g). The College of Education at VSU houses their Department of Teaching and Learning (DTL), which offers several TEPs. Neither the department’s website nor VSU’s DTL Handbook and Advising Manual mentioned an emphasis on autobiography, nor did anything mention that students’ field experiences are completed at diverse urban schools. However, there is a mentioned emphasis on students learning about and following situated pedagogies. Regarding pre-service teachers returning to the classroom of experts, the DTL at VSU emphasizes academic achievement and cultural competence, but not sociopolitical critique (Virginia State University, 2018).

Mississippi Valley State University

Mississippi Valley State University (MVSU) is a 4-year public HBCU located in Itta Bena, Mississippi. During the 2016-2017 school year, MVSU conferred 322 Bachelor’s degrees, 43 of which were in Education (NCES, 2017d). The College of Education at MVSU houses their Teacher Education Department, which offers several TEPs. After navigating the department’s website, it was determined that there is a mentioned emphasis on preparing reflective thinkers, but there is no mentioned emphasis on autobiography. Additionally, there is no mentioned emphasis on field experiences being completed at diverse urban schools, but there is a mentioned emphasis on students learning about and following situated pedagogies. Regarding pre-service teachers returning to the classroom of experts, the Teacher Education Department at MVSU emphasizes academic achievement, but not cultural competence or sociopolitical critique (Mississippi Valley State University, 2016).

Fayetteville State University

Fayetteville State University (FSU) is a 4-year public HBCU located in Fayetteville, North Carolina. During the 2016-2017 school year, FSU conferred 1,001 Bachelor’s degrees, 48 of which were in Education (some of the Education degrees were earned online) (NCES, 2017b). The College of Education at Fayetteville State University (FSU) houses their Office of Teacher Education, which supports all of their TEPs. After navigating the College of Education website, it was determined that there is a mentioned emphasis on preparing reflective thinkers, but there is no mentioned emphasis on autobiography. Additionally, there is no mentioned emphasis on field experiences being completed at diverse urban schools, but there is a mentioned emphasis on students learning about and following situated pedagogies. Regarding pre-service teachers returning to the classroom of experts, the TEPs at FSU emphasize academic achievement and cultural competence, but not sociopolitical critique (Fayetteville State University, 2018).

Elizabeth City State University

Elizabeth City State University (ECSU) is a 4-year public HBCU located in Elizabeth City, North Carolina. During the 2016-2017 school year, ECSU conferred 259 Bachelor’s degrees, 44 of which were in Education (NCES, 2017a). The Dr. Helen Marshall Caldwell Department of Education and Psychology at ECSU houses their Office of Teacher Education, which supports all of their TEPs. After navigating the Teacher Education website and the department’s conceptual framework, it was determined that there is no mentioned emphasis on autobiography, on field experiences being completed at diverse urban schools, or on students learning about and following situated pedagogies. Regarding pre-service teachers returning to the classroom of experts, the Office of Teacher Education at ECSU emphasize academic achievement and cultural competence, but not sociopolitical critique (Elizabeth City State University, 2014).

North Carolina A&T State University

North Carolina A&T State University (NCAT) is a 4-year public HBCU located in Greensboro, North Carolina. During the 2016-2017 school year, NCAT conferred 1,516 Bachelor’s degrees, 68 of which were in Education (some of the Education degrees were earned online) (NCES, 2017e). The School of Education at NCAT houses their Teacher Education Council (TEC), which governs all of their TEPs. After navigating NCAT’s Teacher Education Handbook, it was determined that here is a mentioned emphasis on preparing reflective thinkers, but there is no mentioned emphasis on autobiography. Additionally, there is a mentioned emphasis on field experiences being completed at diverse urban schools and on students learning about and following situated pedagogies. Regarding pre-service teachers returning to the classroom of experts, the TEC at NCAT emphasize academic achievement and cultural competence, and sociopolitical critique (North Carolina A&T State University, 2014).

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the preparation of Black teachers in order to ultimately increase the number of effective Black teachers serving in diverse schools. Seven HBCUs were examined and, though the schools included in this study were identified to be part of the top ten HBCUs to produce teachers, it was found that there is a wide variation in program offerings and foci between these schools. For example, the autobiography component was not explicitly part of any of the seven programs, however many of the schools emphasized a reflective component that loosely mirrored Ladson-Billings’ (2000) autobiography conceptualization. Regarding the situated pedagogy component, all but two of the HBCU teacher education programs explicitly highlighted the necessity of their students thinking critically about the relationship between their preparation and the communities they are tasked to serve. This shows the programs’ commitment to bridging the gap between educational theory and urban K-12 practice. Academic achievement was present in all of the program descriptions and cultural competence was present in all but one. However, sociopolitical critique was emphasized in only two of the seven HBCU teacher preparation programs.

Further, many of the schools described their field experiences as authentic, but there was no specification about this authenticity. An experience may be deemed as authentic to teachers who graduate and serve in suburban or rural schools, but not for teachers who go on and serve in diverse urban schools. However, it is critical that teachers of color who go on to serve students of color be given prior genuine exposure to diverse urban environments. Though race matching between teachers and students has been found to have positive associations with students’ academic achievement and cultural academic experience, that alone does not provide them with a true culturally relevant education which fosters their cultural competency sociopolitical critique. Thus, it is necessary for Black teachers to be thoroughly and intentionally prepared to serve in diverse urban schools (Egalite et al., 2015; Ladson-Billings, 1995).

Limitations of Study

Ladson-Billings (2000) created a framework that provided research-driven, analytical components of effective teacher preparation programs. However, her model, which informed the present study, is not definitive. Future studies should investigate more research-based components of teacher education programs that effectively prepare their graduates to serve in diverse urban schools. Additionally, future studies should include a follow-up with the HBCUs’ graduated teachers. The scope of this study was to simply investigate the components of HBCU teacher preparation programs to determine if they were, according to Ladson-Billings’ recommendations, intentionally preparing their students to be effective in diverse urban schools. However, more solutions to the shortage of Black teachers can be provided if a future study included a follow-up with the program graduates to measure their success in diverse urban schools, similar to the study conducted by Boyd et al. (2009). This success should be defined by teachers’ adherence to CRP as well as their retention in urban schools.

Another limitation to this study is that the HBCU analyses were based solely on the website descriptions (and program handbooks if they were publicly available) of the teacher preparation programs. Thus, there is a tremendous chance that the descriptions are not completely reflective of the implementation of the components. Related, definitions for all of the HBCU’s ideas of cultural competence and sociopolitical critique were not always clear. A future study could visit the campuses or make phone calls to the HBCUs, or conduct interviews and distribute surveys to the students, staff, and alumni of the HBCUs’ teacher preparation programs in order to more accurately understand how the studied components are defined, implemented, and assessed.

Conclusion

The present study aimed to critically examine the teacher preparation programs of seven HBCUs in order to offer guidance to other HBCUs to ultimately increase the number of effective Black teachers they are preparing to serve in diverse schools. The seven schools that were examined were TSU, JSU, VSU, MVSU, FSU, ECSU, and NCAT. This study found that (a) the autobiography component was not explicitly part of any of the seven programs, (b) the situated pedagogy component was present in all but two of the HBCU teacher education programs, (c) the academic achievement component was present in all of the program descriptions, (d) the cultural competence component was present in all but one of the programs, and (e) the sociopolitical critique component was emphasized in only two of the seven HBCU teacher preparation programs. Thus, among the HBCU teacher preparation programs that contribute significantly to the number of Black teachers in America, the components likely to be underscored are situated pedagogy, academic achievement, and cultural competence. However, the components more likely to be overlooked are the incorporation of autobiographies and sociopolitical critique. Therefore, in order to best prepare Black teachers who are entering urban school settings, teacher educators should consider evaluating the effectiveness of their teacher preparation programs as it relates to their graduates’ preparedness to serve diverse students. Finally, notwithstanding the incredible efforts being made to equip America’s schools with Black teachers, producing them is simply not enough. In order to fully support the needs of diverse learners, it is critical that great intentionality be put into ensuring that these Black teachers are adequately prepared to utilize true cultural relevancy within their diverse classrooms.

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